آنكه اعتماد می كند خيانت می بيند

آنكه اعتماد نمی كند خود خيانتكار است

                                         الهی از من آهی

                                          واز تو نگاهی

قال علي(ع)

التماس به خدا شجاعت است

اگر بر آورده شود رحمت است

اگر برآورده نشود حكمت است

التماس به خلق خدا ذلت است

اگر بر آورده شود منت است

اگر بر آورده نشود خفت است

************************************

  God will not promise you
endless blue skies,  but he did promise
to help bear your burden

God didn't promise that
all of your dreams will come true,
but he did promise that
it's possible to reach them.

God didn't promise that
everything in your life
will turn out as you planned,
but he did promise that
your prayers will be answered.

God didn't promise that
you'll become wealthy,
but he did promise to give
you everything you need.

God didn't promise that
you'll never feel lonely,
but he did promise that
he would always be there for you.

ببخشم به فضل خود اي آقايم و برسان به من آمرزشت و بپوشان مرا به پرده پوشي ات و بگذر از سرزنشم به آبرويت.يا سيدي!منم كودكي كه پرورديدي و منم ناداني كه آموختي و منم گمراهي كه رهنموديش و منم پستي كه بلندش كردي و منم ترساني كه آسوده اش ساختي و گرسنه اي كه سيرش كردي و تشنه اي كه نوشاندي او را و برهنه اي كه پوشيدي اش... .و منم اندكي كه بسيارش كردي و خوار شده اي كه ياريش كردي...

فرازي از دعاي ابوحمزه ثمالي

http://www.bachehayeghalam.com/media/clip/biyabiya.htm

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1. Heat and Work
2. Energy
3. Enthalpy
4. Entropy
5. Free Energy

Work and heat can both be described using the same unit of measure. Sometimes the calorie is the unit of measure, and refers to the amount of heat required to raise one (1) gram of water one (1) degree Celsius. Heat energy is measured in kilocalories, or 1000 calories. Typically, we use the SI units of Joules (J) and kilojoules (kJ). One calorie of heat is equivalent to 4.187 J. You will also encounter the term specific heat, the heat required to raise one (1) gram of a material one (1) degree Celsius. Specific heat, given by the symbol "C", is generally defined as:

Where:

C = specific heat in calories/gram-degrees Celsius
q = heat added in calories,
M = mass in grams
delta T = rise in temperature of the material in degrees Celsius.

The value of C for water is 1.00 calories/gram-degrees Celsius.

The values for specific heat that are reported in the literature are usually listed at a specific pressure and/or volume, and you need to pay attention to these settings when using values from textbooks in problems or computer models.

Example Problem: If a 2.34 g substance at 22 degrees celsius with a specific heat of 3.88 cal/g°C is heated with 124 cal of energy, what is the new temperature of the substance?

Two other common heat variables are the heat of fusion and the heat of vaporization. Heat of fusion is the heat required to melt a substance at is normal melting temperature, while the heat of vaporization is the heat required to evaporate the substance at its normal boiling point.

Chemical work is primarily related to that of expansion. In physics, work is defined as:

Where:

w = work, in joules (N*m) (or calories, but we are using primarily SI units)
distance is in meters
opposing force is in newtons (kg*m/s²)

In chemical reactions, work is generally defined as :

The value of distance times area is actually the volume. If we imagine a reaction taking place in a container of some volume, we measure work by pressure times the change in volume.

Where:

dV is the change in volume, in liters

If dV=0, then no work is done.

Example Problem: Calculate the work that must be done at standard temperature and pressure (STP is 0 degrees C and 1 atm) to make room for the products of the octane combustion:

Energy

Where:

dE is the change in internal energy of a system, in joules
q is the heat flowing into the system in joules
w is the work being done on the system in joules

If q is positive, we say that the reaction is endothermic, that is, heat flows into the reaction from the outside su rroundings. If q is negative, then the reaction is exothermic, that is, heat is given off to the external surroundings.

You might also remember the terms kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy is the energy of motion -- the amount of energy in an object that is moving. Potential energy is stationary, stored energy. If you think of a ball sitting on the edge of a table, it has potential energy in the energy possible if it falls off the table. Potential energy can be transformed into kinetic energy if and when the ball actually rolls off the table and is in motion. The total energy of the system is defined as the sum of kinetic and potential energies.

In descriptions of the energy of a system, you will also see the phrase "state properties". A state property is a quantity whose value is independent of the past history of the substance. Typical state properties are altitude, pressure, volume, temperature, and internal energy.

Enthalpy

Where:

dH = change in enthalpy

We define enthalpy itself as:

Where:

H = enthalpy
E = energy of the system
PV = pressure in atm times volume in liters

You will not need to be able to calculate the enthalpy directly; in chemistry, we are only interested in the change in enthalpy, or dH.

Example Problem: Calculate the dH value of the reaction:

We can also represent enthalpy change with the equation:

Where:

dV is the change in volume, in liters
P is the constant pressure

If you recall, work is defined as P*dV, so enthalpy changes are simply a reflection of the amount of energy change (energy going in or out, endothermic or exothermic), and the amount of work being done by the reaction. For example, if dE = -100 kJ in a certain combustion reaction, but 10 kJ of work needs to be done to make room for the products, the change in enthalphy is:

This is an exothermic reaction (which is expected with combustion), and 90 kJ of energy is released to the environment. Basically, you get warmer. Notice the convention used here -- a n egative value represents energy coming out of the system.

You can also determine dH for a reaction based on bond dissociation energies. Breaking bonds requires energy while forming bonds releases energy. In a given equation, you must determi ne what kinds of bonds are broken and what kind of bonds are formed. Use this information to calculate the amount of energy used to break bonds and the amount used to form bonds. If you subtract the amount to break bonds from the amount to form bonds, y ou will have the dH for the reaction.

Example Problem: Calculate dH for the reaction:

Entropy

Where:

dS (or delta S) is change in entropy
S_final and S_initial are the final and initial entropies, respectively

The following table shows the relationship between the state of a substance and its entropy:

Free Energy

Where:

G is the free energy (sometimes called the Gibbs free energy, after its discoverer)
H is the enthalpy
T is the temperature
S is the entropy of the system.

You can also calculate the change in G the same way as you calculate the change in enthalpy or entropy:

Where:

dG (or delta G) is change in free energy

A pop-up calculator is available to calculate the enthalpy and Gibb's free energy changes in reactions.

Given a constant temperature and pressure, the direction of any spontaneous change is toward a lower free energy. The graphic below shows that during a reaction, the amount of free energy decreases until the reaction is at equilibrium. If the reaction g oes towards completion, the free energy minimum occurs very close to the pure products part of the curve. In other words, the curve moves depending on the conditions of the reaction.

A table relating all of the state properties summarized above -- enthalpy change, entropy change, and change in free energy -- is shown below. A spontaneous reaction is one that occurs without any outside intervention. Processes that are spontaneous in one direction are non-spontaneous in the reverse direction.

Enthalpy Practice Problem: Given the following bond dissociation energies (H-C is 413 kJ/mol; H-H is 436 kJ/mol; C=C is 614 kJ/mol; C-C is 348 kJ/mol), determine dH for the reaction:

Enthalpy solution.

Entropy Practice Problem: Given the following entropy values (Al₂O₃(s) is 51.00; Al(s) is 28.32; H₂O(g) is 188.7; H₂(g) is 130.6), determine dS for the reaction:

Entropy solution.

دفع مواد منفجره با اسفناج

دانشمندان آمريكايي در آزمايشگاه ملي پاسيفيك نورث وست و زارت نيرو كشف كرده ان كه از اسفناج و ديگر گيهان وابسته مي توان براي خنثي سازي ذخاير نامطلوب مواد منفجره مانند  TNT استفاده كرد . آنها عقيده دارند كهآنزيم نيترورداكتاز موجود در اسفناج مي تواند مواد منفجره را هضم كند و نسبت به روشهاي فعلي موجود روشي سازگارتر با محيط براي

دفع ارائه دهد . تركيبات آروماتيكي نيتروژن دار ، جزء اصلي آلي بسياري از مواد منفجره را مي توان با آنزيم هاي گوناگوني كه در گياهان ، قارچها ، باكتريها و شير چرخ كرده يافت مي شود كاهيد . براي آغاز واكنش هضم ، پژوهشگران به سادگي آنزيمها را ( كه در دماي اتاق در محلول بافر هستند ) با يك عامل كاهنده مانند لاتيك اسيد يا اتانول مخلوط مي كنند . اين روش موسوم به « فرآيند هضم بي خطر نسبت به محيط زيست » را مي توان در آب و فشار جو انجام داد تا از انفجار اتفاقي پيشگيري شود . (EBDP)

مزيت ديگر آن است كه هيچ ضايعات اسيدي يا قليايي در مدت فرآيند هضم توليد نمي شود و مواد منفجره را با روشي بسيار بي خطر نابود مي كند .

آنزيمها بخشي از صنايع در حال رشدند كه در شوينده ها ، مواد نساجي و صنايع غذايي و نوشيدني مصرف مي شوند ولي اين اولين كاربرد آنها در خنثي سازي مواد منفجره است . ميليونها تن ذخيره ي مواد منفجره در زرادخانه هاي نظامي جهان وجود دارد ولي روشهاي دفع از طريق سوزاندن و منفجر كردن مستلزم هزينه و خطر است. اگر آزمايشهاي عملي در محل مانند آزمونهاي آزمايشگاهيEBDP  موفقيت آميز باشد مي تواند نسبت به روشهاي ديگر به لحاظ هزينه صرفه ي بيشتري داشته باشد .

آنزيمهاي هضم كننده ي مواد منفجره مي توانند ، به يك صنعت شكوفا مبدل شوند . در اين فرآيند جديد چون به هيچ تجهيزات ويژه سخت افزار يا نرم افزار نيازي نيست هزينه هاي سرمايه گذاري پايين نگه داشته مي شود . اين بدان معني است كه خنثي سازي را مي توان در محل انجام داد و از حمل مواد منفجره  از محل زرادخانه ها و پايگاه هاي ارتش به كوره هاي زباله سوزي اجتناب كرد . پژوهشگران اكنون مشغول بررسي اين موضوع اند كه آيا مواد منفجره ي هضم شده را مي توان به عنوان مواد آغازگر در فرآيندهاي صنعتي استفاده كرد . پژوهشهاي اوليه نشان مي دهد كه آنزيمها آمينوفنول يك پيش ماده براي مسكن ملايم استامينوفن تبديل مي كنند .

مي خواهم آرزو كنم!


خداوندا، اي بي نياز بي همتا مي دانم كه هيچ رويشي به رويش سبز فروردين نمي رسد پس در بهترين روزهاي تو آرزوهاي رنگينم را از تو مي خواهم.

بهار از راه مي رسد و من چشمهايم را مي بندم و با خيال تو به پرواز در مي آيم.

مي دانم كه مي شنوي و مي دانم كه اجابت مي كني!

مي خواهم آرزو كنم كه مثل آب نزديك به زمين باشم.

مي خواهم آرزو كنم كه از اين پس در تفكر عميق باشم و با تمام وجود انديشه كنم.

مي خواهم آرزو كنم كه باز هم خيرخواه ديگران باشم.

مي خواهم آرزو كنم كه در قضاوت در مورد ديگران عادل باشم.

مي خواهم آروز كنم كه از اين پس به خوبي كسب مهارت كنم.

مي خواهم آرزو كنم كه وقت شناس باشم

مي خواهم آرزو كنم ...

مي خواهم آرزو كنم كه تو خداي خوب من، آرزوهاي بيهوده را از دلم دور كني و آرزوهاي مفيد و عقلاني ام را محقق سازي. پس آرزو مي كنم كه

« هرگز و حتي در سخت ترين روزهاي زندگيم دست از همه چيز نشويم تا دستهايم بدتر از دستهاي آلوده نباشد.»

الهی به حق آنکه تو را هيچ حاجت نيست

کرم نما بر آنکه او را هيچ حجت نيست

به نام خدا

ای خدا اگر مرا ازدرگاهت برانی نمی روم ودست نمی کشم ازتملقت ،خدايا به من رحم کن در اين دنيا غربتم را ،و درهنگام مرگ گرفتاری ام را ،ودر قبر تنهايی ام را،ودر لحدهراسم را.وقتی برخيزم برای حساب مرا دربرابرت آورند بيامرز مرا آنچه از کردارم که بر مردم پوشيده مانده .آقايم رحم کن مرا که در بستر مرگ افتاده ام و دست های دوستان مرا به اين سو وآن سو می گردانند. تفضل کن بر من که دراز کشيدم برروی سنگ غسالخانه و می گردانند همسايگان مهربانم مرا برروی دوش خود . گرفته اند خويشانم گوشه های تابوت مرا.و موقعی که وارد شدم تنها در گودال قبر . رحم کن به من در اين خانه جديد.

رحم کن در اين خانه جديد غربتم را ، تا انس نگيرم به ديگری جز تو.

ای آقای من اگر مرا به خود واگذاری هلاک می شوم .خدايا به چه کسی دادخواهی کنم .اگز نگذری از لغزشم به که بهراسم . اگر ندارم عنايت تو را درآرامگاهم به که پناه ببرم .اگررفع گرفتاری ام نکنی .چه کسی به من رحم کند .هنگامی که مرگ من فرا رسد .آقای من عذابم نکن که من اميد به تو دارم .خدايا ثابت بدار اميدم را ،زيرا زيادی گناهانم اميدم رابريده .

(برگرفته ازدعای ابوحمزه ثمالی)

The 5 finger prayer

1- Your thumb is nearest to you;

     So begin your prayer by praying for those closest to you.

    They are easiest to remember. To pray for our loved ones is,

                                                                                        "Sweet duty"

2- The next finger is the pointing finger;

     Pray for those who teach, instruct & heat

               This includes teachers, dentists, physicians and ministers.

     They need support & wisdom in pointing others in the right

      Direction. Keep them in your prayers.

 3- The next finger is the tallest finger;

      It reminds us of our leaders. Pray for the president, leaders

      In business & industry and administrators. This people   

      Shape   Our nation & guide public opinion. They need God s

          Guidance.       

 4- The fourth finger is our ring finger;

      Surprising to many is the fact that this is our weakest finger.

      As any piano teacher will testify. It should remind us to

      Pray of those who are weak, in trouble or in pain.

      They need your prayers day & night. You can not pray too

      Much for them.

    5- And lastly comes our little finger;

                  Smallest finger of all.

      Which is where we should place ourselves in relation to god

      and others. As the bible says;

      The least shall be the greatest among you.

      You pinkie should remind you to pray for yourself.

     By the time being have prayed for the four groups, your own

     Needs will be put into proper perspective and you will be

     Able to pray for yourself more effectively…  

خدايا بي پناهم

             ز تو جز تو نخواهم

                       اگر عشقت كناه است

                                        ببين غرق گناهم

"خانه دوست کجاست؟"

 در فلق بود که پرسيد سوار.
 آسمان مکثي کرد.
رهگذر شاخه نوري که به لب داشت به تاريکي شنها بخشيد
 و به انگشت نشان داد سپيداري و گفت:
" نرسيده به درخت
 کوچه باغي است که از خواب خدا سبز تر است
و در آن عشق به اندازه پر هاي صداقت آبي است.
مي روي تا ته آن کوچه که از پشت بلوغ٬ سر به در مي آرد
پس به سمت گل تنهايي مي پيچي٬
دو قدم مانده به گل٬
  پاي فوارهء جاويد اساطير زمين مي ماني
 و تو را ترسي شفاف فرا ميگيرد.
در صميميت سيال فضا٬ خش خشي مي شنوي:
 کودکي مي بيني
رفته از کاج بلندي بالا٬ جوجه بر دارد از لانه نور
 و از او مي پرسي
 خانه دوست کجاست؟ "

اميدواري

اگر با دیدن رنگین کمان می ایستی و به زیبایی آن خیره میشوی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر بارانی که بر سقف اتاقت میبارد به تو شهد آرامش میچشاند ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر با پيام  غیرمنتظره ای خوشحال و شگفت زده می شوی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر به طلوع و غروب آفتاب خورشید بنگری و بخندی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر از درد و رنج دیگران ناراحت و پردرد میشوی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر زیبایی رنگهای  گل کوچکی را درک کنی ،  بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر آرامش بعد از طوفان دريا را ديده باشی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر با سختی ها روبرو میشوی و میجنگی  بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر لبخند کودکی ، قلبت را شاد میکند ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر با نگاهی به گذشته لبخند بزنی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر لذت پرواز پروانه را درک کنی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر خوبیهای دیگران را میبینی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر به فکر آرامش هستی ،  بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

اگر به بهار فکر می کنی ، بدان که هنوز امیدواری !

و بالاخره

اگر کلمه امید هنوز مفهوم خود را نزد تو از دست نداده و به آن می اندیشی

پس بدان:

 هنوز امیدواری و وجودت پر از زیبایی است و هرجا که بروی با خود نور و برکت میبری

- اگر اولش به فکر آخرش نباشي آخرش به فکر اولش مي افتي

2- آغاز کسي باش که پايان تو باشد

3- چون مي گذرد غمي نيست

4- انسان بايد سعي کند در زندگي چيزهايي که دوست دارد را بدست آورد ، وگرنه مجبور ميشودچيزهايي را که بدست آورده است دوست بدارد

5- کاش ميشد سرنوشت را از سرِِ نوشت

6- براي تمام دردها دو علاج وجود دارد گذر زمان وسكوت

7- اگر شير درنده اي در برابرت باشد بهتر است از اينكه سگ خائني پشت سرت باشد

8- مورد اعتماد بودن بهتر از دوست داشتني بودن است

9- با يه چوب کبريت ميشه هزاران درخت رو سوزوند و از يه درخت هزاران چوب کبريت به وجود مي آيد

10-  محبت از درخت آموز که سايه از سر هيزم شکن هم بر نميدارد

11- اين جهان پر از صداي پاي مردمي است كه همان طور كه تو را مي بوسند طناب دار تو را مي بافند

12- آنکه مي گريد يک درد دارد و آنکه مي خندد هزار و يک درد

13- جامعه مثل آب نمک است شنا کردن در آن بد نيست اما بلعش وحشتناک است

14- پريدن كار دل است و قدم زندن كار عقل، اگر لذت جهان خواهي با دل همسفر شو و اگر مقصد خواهي آهسته رو

15- زندگي همانند هنر نقاشي كردن است با مداد مشكي ولي بدون پاك كن

16- خانمها با گوشهايشان عاشق مي شوند و آقایان با چشم هايشان ...

17- شيشه نزديكتر از سنگ ندارد خويشي......

18- در زندگي خانوادگي،شوم ترين كلمات اين دو هستند:مال من،مال تو

19- براي جبران اشتباهات، به دوستانت همانقدر زمان بده که براي خودت فرصت قائل ميشوي

20- آن چه را در روشنايي ديده اي در تاريکي به فراموشي نسپار

21- مردها همواره ميخواهند اولين عشق يك زن باشند و زن ها دوست دارند آخرين عشق يك مرد باشند

22- انسان، عاشق زيبايي نمي شود. بلكه آنچه عاشقش مي شود در نظرش زيباست

23- گاهي اوقات در زندگي خيلي زود، ديــــــــــــر مي شود

24- براي اينكه بزرگ باشي، نخست كوچك بودن را تجربه كن

25- زياده از حد خود را تحت فشار نگذار، بهترين چيزها در زماني اتفاق مي‌افتد كه انتظارش را نداري

26-  تنها بنايي که اگر بلرزد ، محکمتر مي شود ، دل است

27-  سعي کن خودت باشي. گمشده واقعي تو   تو را آنطور که هستي دوست مي دارد نه آنطور که خود مي پسندد

28-  دنبال کسي نباش که باهاش بتوني زندگي کني دنبال کسي باش که بدون اون نتوني زندگي کني

29-  خدايا به من تلاش در شكست، صبر درنومیدی، رفتن بي همراه، فداكاري در سكوت،

خدمت بي نان، مناعت بي غرور، عشق بي هوس و دوست داشتن بي انكه دوست بداند

روزي كن

30-  براي رسيدن به دوردست ها, بايد از نزديكي ها گذشت , اما رسيدن به نزديكي ها به

سهولت ميسر نيست

31-  جاي کشتي در ساحل بسيار امن تر است ولي براي اين ساخته نشده

32-  سعي کن عظمت در نگاه تو باشد نه در آنچه که بدان مي نگري

33-  بگذار تا شيطنت عشق چشمان تو را بر عرياني خويش بگشايد. هرچند آن بجز معني رنج و پريشاني نباشد. اما کوري را هرگز بخاطر آرامش تحمل مکن

جملاتی که از الماس گرانترند .

**************************************************    

آناتول فرانس : آرزو كردن با انسان و به آرزو رسيدن باخداست .

حضرت علي (ع) : خوش اخلاقي روزي را فراوان كند و دوستان را مانوس سازد .

حضرت علي (ع) : ارجمندترين مردم كساني هستند كه ادب دارند .

شيلون : به زبانت اجازه نده كه قبل از انديشه ات به كار افتد .

حجازي : تا فردايي هست ، بايد اميدوار بود .

سيدني : كساني كه با افكار عالي و خوب دمسازند ، هرگز تنها نيستند .

هرمان هرسه : اگر بر ناتوان خشمگين شوي ، دليل بر اين است كه قوي نيستي .

يونسكو : اگر همه آرزوها برآورده ميشد ، هيچ آرزويي برآورده نمي شد.

حجازي : آزادي وقتي است كه اختيار ما به دست عقل باشد.

شيلر : مقام عالي انساني در برابر شماست ، آنرا به دست آوريد.

روبرتسون : رمز كليه پيروزيها ، اراده است.

داير : تمامي كردار شما ، نشاني از افكارتان است.

ليست : پيروزي، هميشه نصيب كساني ميشود كه در راه اصلي قدم برداشته اند.

وايلد : ادب خرجي ندارد ولي ميتواند همه چيز را خريداري كند.

رابينز : براي آن كس كه ايمان دارد، نا ممكن وجود ندارد.

رحمت نژاد : افكار پريشان، زندگي پريشان مي سازد.

ساموئل جانسون : ذهن خود را از نتوانستن ها خالي كن.

حضرت علي (ع) : بهتر از دارايي فراوان، تندرستي بدن است.

حضرت علي (ع) : ترسو را توفيق و كاميابي محال است.

رضازاده شفق : بزرگ ترين ميوه تمدن بشري، آذادي است.

وينج : تمدني مقبول و مطبوع است كه، جوامع بيشتري پيرو آن باشند.

حضرت محمد (ص) : كسي كه ايمانش بيشتر است، اخلاقش نيكوتر است.

رابينز : پرسش هاي ما، افكار ما را مي سازند.

سارنف : داشتن پشتكار، تفاوت ظريف بين شكست و كاميابي است.

بناپارت : شجاعت مانند عشق، از اميد تغذيه ميشود.

هلمز : هميشه صراحت بيان داشته باش، هر چند به ندرت حرف بزني.

مونيه : انديشه توام با نشاط، نشانه يك روان سالم است.

حضرت علي (ع) : ساعتي انديشه كردن بهتر از مدتي عبادت كردن است.

اگر درباره آينده نينديشيد، يقينا آينده اي هم نخواهيد داشت.

كراك : تنها پشتكار و عزم راسخ، راهگشا و كارساز است.

دهخدا : دنيا به اميد برپاست و انسان به اميد زنده است.

داير : هيچ چيز در اين دنيا اتفاقي نيست.

حضرت علي (ع) : هر رنج و ناراحتي را گشايشي باشد.

حضرت محمد (ص) : همنشين خوب از تنهايي بهتر است و تنهايي از همنشين بد بهتر.

سنكا : بزرگ ترين داروي خشم، صبر و درنگ است.

زولا : اغلب آنهايي پيروز و موفق ميشوند كه كمتر تعريف و تمجيد شنيده باشند.

حضرت علي (ع) : بهترين و عالي ترين آرزوها را در خود بپرورانيد.

پاندر : از انديشه ها و آرزوهاي ديگران، براي موفقيت خود كمك بگيريد.

افشين مشتاق : اي كاش خدا قبل از اينكه چيزي به آدم ها بدهد، ابتدا معرفتش را بدهد.

ورن : يك غم، به تنهايي براي نابودي هزاران نشاط كافي است.

پاولوفا : راز موفقيت اين است: هدفي را بي وقفه دنبال كنيد.

مترلينگ : زندگي بدون عشق، چون زيستن در تاريكي مطلق است.

كورنو : سعادت آن است كه انسان دنيا را همان طور كه آرزو مي كند ببيند.

يك دعاي زيباBeautiful Prayer   

 از خدا خواستم عادت‌هاي زشت را تركم بدهد.

خدا فرمود:خودت بايد آنها را رها كني.

I asked god to take away my habit

God said, no

It is not for me to take away, but for you to give it up

از او درخواست كردم فرزند معلولم را شفا دهد.

فرمود: لازم نيست، روحش سالم است؛

جسم هم كه موقت است.

I asked god to make my handicapped child whole

God said, no

body is only temporary

از او خواستم لااقل به من صبر عطا كند.

فرمود: صبر، حاصل سختي و رنج است.

عطاكردني نيست، آموختني است.

I asked god to grant me patience

God said, no

Patience is a byproduct of tribulation

It isn't granted, it is learned

گفتم: مرا خوشبخت كن.

فرمود: نعمت از من خوشبخت شدن از تو.

I asked god to give me happiness

God said, no

I give you blessings

happiness is up to you

از او خواستم مرا گرفتار درد و عذاب نكند.

فرمود:

رنج از دلبستگي‌هاي دنيايي جدا و به من نزديک‌ترت مي‌كند.

I asked god to spare me pain

God said, no

Suffering draws you apart from worldly cares and brings you closer to me

از او خواستم روحم را رشد دهد.

فرمود: نه تو خودت بايد رشد كني.

من فقط شاخ و برگ اضافي‌ات را هرس مي‌كنم تا بارور شوي.

I asked god to make my spirit grow

God said, no

You must grow on your own

But I will prune you to make you fruitful

از خدا خواستم كاري كند كه از زندگي لذت كامل ببرم.

فرمود: براي اين كار من به تو زندگي داده‌ام.

I asked god for all things that I might enjoy life

God said, no

I will give you life, so that you may enjoy all things

از خدا خواستم كمكم كند همان‌قدر كه او مرا دوست دارد، من هم ديگران را دوست بدارم.

خدا فرمود: آها، بالاخره اصل مطلب دستگيرت شد!

I asked god to help me love others, as much as He loves me

  God said: Ahah, finally you have the idea

با تمام وجود فرياد خواهم زد تا به دنيا  ثابت كنم،

"تمام مسيرها به طرف مشترك مورد نظر اشغال نميباشد"!!!!

 آرزو كردن با انسان و به آرزو رسيدن با خداست. (آناتول فرانس)

كسي كه با افكار عالي و خوب دمسازند، هرگز تنها نيستند.( سيدني)

اگر بر ناتوان خشمگين شوي ، دليل بر اين است كه قوي نيستي . ( هرمان هسه)

اگر همه آرزوها بر آورده شود، هيچ آرزويي برآورده نميشد. ( يونسكو)

مقام عالي انسان در برابر شماست ، آن را به دست آوريد.( شيللر)

ادب خرجي ندارد ولي مي تواند همه چيز را خريداري كند. (وايلدا)

براي آن كس كه ايمان دارد، ناممكن وجود ندارد. ( رابينز)

ذهن خود را از نتوانستن ها خالي كن ( سامويل جانسون)

بهتر از دارايي فراوان، تندرستي است. ( حضرت علي ع )

پرسش هاي ما افكار ما را ميسازد. (رابينز)

شجاعت مانند عشق از اميد تغذيه ميشود. ( بناپارت)

ساعتي انديشه كردن بهتر از مدتي عبادت كردن است. (حضرت علي ع)

وجدان خداي حاضر در انسان است.( هوگو)

از انديشه ها وآرزوهاي ديگران، براي موفقيت خود كمك بگيريد. (پاندر)

زندگي بدون عشق، چون زيستن در تاريكي مطلق است. (مترلينگ)

آنچه به پرودگار مديونيم ، دوست داشتن ديگران است.(لاكوردر)

سعادت آن است كه انسان دنيا را همان طور كه آرزو مي كند ببيند. (كورنو)

قدرت را بخشايش آرايش ميدهد. (حضرت علي ه)

 آن گاه كه، دوازدهمين زنگ نيمه شب نواخته شد؛ در ا نتظار پايان شادي هايت نباش و بدان كه هيچ دري به روي تو بسته نخواهد شد.

زيرا در اين قصه.... خداوند فرشته مهربان توست!!!

     « مانند خورشید»

این نور و گرمایی که می روید ز خورشید

در پهنه منظومه ما

جان آفرین است

هستی ده و هستی فزای هر چه در روی زمین است

*

ما هیچ یک نوری و گرمایی که جان بخشد به این عالم نداریم

اما به سهم خویش و درمحدوده خویش

ما نیز از خورشید چیزی کم نداریم

*

با نور گرمای« محبت »

نیروی هستی بخش « خدمت »

در بین مردم می توان آسان درخشید

بر دیگران تابید و جان تازه بخشید

مانند خورشید

سلام برتو اي رمضان

سلام بر تو اي بزرگترين ماه خدا، و اي عيد دوستان پروردگار.
سلام برتو اي بهترين همنشين، و اي بهترين ماه در روزها و ساعتها.
سلام بر تو اي ماهي كه اميدها در تو نزديك مي شود، و اعمال، بين بندگان درتو گسترده مي شود.
سلام بر تو اي همنشيني كه از ابتداي حلولت با جلال و شادي بخشي.
سلام بر تو اي همسايه‌اي كه دلها در تو نرم مي شود و گناهان در تو ، به كمي مي رود.
سلام بر تو اي ياوري كه بر عليه شيطان ياريمان مي کني و راههاي نيكي كردن را آسان مي نمايي.

سلام بر تو، همچنان كه بر ما، با بركات وارد شده و چرك گناهان را از ما مي شويي.
سلام بر تو، چه بسيار از بدي كه به سبب تو از ما رانده مي شود، و چه بسيار از خوبي كه به سبب تو بر ما ريزان مي گردد.
سلام بر تو اي مطلوب، قبل از اينكه بيايي،و اي آنكه قبل از رفتنت، اندوه و حزن از دست دادنت، بر قلوب ريزان است.
سلام بر تو اي ماه شستشو، سلام بر تو اي ماه قرب به حق تعالي، سلام بر تو اي ماه دگرگون شدن .

AFLATOXIN

( test  position )

Although aflatoxins are known to cause cancer (carcinogenic) in animals, the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) allows them at low levels because they are considered "unavoidable contaminants" of these foods. To help minimize risk, the FDA tests foods that may contain aflatoxin. Peanuts and peanut butter are some of the most rigorously tested products by FDA because they frequently contain aflatoxins and are widely consumed.

The FDA believes the occasional consumption of small amounts of aflatoxin pose little risk over a lifetime. It is not practical to attempt to remove aflatoxin from contaminated food products in order to make them edible.

Aflatoxin B1	Aflatoxin G1

FERTILIZER PLANTS

Mixed Fertilizer Plants

Mixed fertilizers contain two or more of the elements nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium (NPK), which are essential for good plant growth and high crop yields. This document addresses the production of ammonium phosphates (mono ammonium phosphate, or MAP, and diammonium phosphate, or DAP), nitro phosphates, potash, and compound fertilizers. Ammonium phosphates are produced by mixing phosphoric acid and anhydrous ammonia in a reactor to produce a slurry. (This is the mixed-acid route for producing NPK fertilizers; potassium and other salts are added during the process.) The slurry is sprayed onto a bed of re-cycled solids in a rotating granulator, and ammonia is sparged into the bed from underneath. Granules pass to a rotary dryer followed by a rotary cooler. Solids are screened and sent to storage for bagging or for bulk shipment.

Nitro phosphate fertilizer is made by digesting phosphate rock with nitric acid. This is the Nitro phosphate route leading to NPK fertilizers; as in the mixed-acid route, potassium and other salts are added during the process. The resulting solution is cooled to precipitate calcium nitrate, which is removed by filtration. The filtrate is neutralized with ammonia, and the solution is evaporated to reduce the water content. Prilling may follow. The calcium nitrate filter cake can be further treated to produce a calcium nitrate fertilizer, pure calcium nitrate, or ammonium nitrate and calcium carbonate. Nitro phosphate fertilizers are also produced by the mixed-acid process, through digestion of the phosphate rock by a mixture of nitric and phosphoric acids.

Potash (potassium carbonate) and sylvine (potassium chloride) are solution-mined from deposits and are refined through crystallization processes to produce fertilizer. Potash may also be dry-mined and purified by flotation.

Compound fertilizers can be made by blending basic fertilizers such as ammonium nitrate,MAP, DAP, and granular potash; this route may involve a granulation process.

Nitrogenous Fertilizer Plants

This document addresses the production of ammonia,urea, ammonium sulfate, ammonium nitrate (AN), calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN), and ammonium sulfate nitrate (ASN). The manufacture of nitric acid used to produce nitrogenous fertilizers typically occurs on site and is there-fore included here.

Ammonia

Ammonia (NH3) is produced from atmospheric nitrogen and hydrogen from a hydrocarbon source. Natural gas is the most commonly used hydrocarbon feedstock for new plants; other feedstocks that have been used include naphtha, oil, and gasified coal. Natural gas is favored over the other feedstocks from an environmental perspective.

Ammonia production from natural gas includes the following processes: desulfurization of the feedstock; primary and secondary reforming; carbon monoxide shift conversion and removal of carbon dioxide, which can be used for urea manufacture; methanation; and ammonia synthesis.

Catalysts used in the process may include cobalt, molybdenum, nickel, iron oxide/chromium oxide, copper oxide/zinc oxide, and iron.

Urea

Urea fertilizers are produced by a reaction of liquid ammonia with carbon dioxide. The process steps include solution synthesis, where ammonia and carbon dioxide react to form ammonium carbamate, which is dehydrated to form urea; solution concentration by vacuum, crystallization,or evaporation to produce a melt; forma- tion of solids by prilling (pelletizing liquid drop-lets)

or granulating; cooling and screening of solids;coating of the solids; and bagging or bulk loading. The carbon dioxide for urea manufacture is produced as a by-product from the ammonia plant reformer.

Ammonium Sulfate

Ammonium sulfate is produced as a caprolactam by-product from the petrochemical industry,as a coke by-product, and synthetically through reaction of ammonia with sulfuric acid.

The reaction between ammonia and sulfuric acid produces an ammonium sulfate solution that is continuously circulated through an evaporator to thicken the solution and to produce ammonium sulfate crystals. The crystals are separated from the liquor in a centrifuge, and the liquor is returned to the evaporator. The crystals are fed either to a fluidized bed or to a rotary drum dryer and are screened before bagging or bulk loading.

Ammonium Nitrate, Calcium Ammonium Nitrate,and Ammonium Sulfate Nitrate

Ammonium nitrate is made by neutralizing nitric acid with anhydrous ammonia. The resulting 80-90% solution of ammonium nitrate can be sold as is, or it may be further concentrated to a 95-99.5% solution (melt) and converted into prills or granules. The manufacturing steps include solution formation, solution concentration, solids formation, solids finishing, screening, coating, and bagging or bulk shipping. The processing steps depend on the desired finished product.

Calcium ammonium nitrate is made by adding calcite or dolomite to the ammonium nitrate melt before prilling or granulating. Ammonium sulfate nitrate is made by granulating a solution of ammonium nitrate and ammonium sulfate.

Nitric Acid

The production stages for nitric acid manufacture include vaporizing the ammonia; mixing the vapor with air and burning the mixture over a platinum/rhodium catalyst; cooling the resultant nitric oxide (NO) and oxidizing it to nitrogen dioxide (NO2) with residual oxygen; and absorbing the nitrogen dioxide in water in an absorption column to produce nitric acid (HNO3).

Because of the large quantities of ammonia and other hazardous materials handled on site, an emergency preparedness and response plan is required.

Phosphate Fertilizer Plants

Phosphate fertilizers are produced by adding acid to ground or pulverized phosphate rock. If sulfuric acid is used, single or normal, phosphate (SSP) is produced, with a phosphorus content of 16-21% as phosphorous pent oxide (P2O5). If phosphoric acid is used to acidulate the phosphate rock, triple phosphate (TSP) is the result. TSP has a phosphorus content of 43-48% as P2O5.

SSP production involves mixing the sulfuric acid and the rock in a reactor. The reaction mixture is discharged onto a slow-moving conveyor in a den. The mixture is cured for 4 to 6 weeks before bagging and shipping.

Two processes are used to produce TSP fertilizers: run-of-pile and granular. The run-of-pile process is similar to the SSP process. Granular TSP uses lower-strength phosphoric acid (40%, compared with 50% for run-of-pile). The reaction mixture, a slurry, is sprayed onto recycled fertilizer fines in a granulator. Granules grow and are then discharged to a dryer, screened, and sent to storage.

Phosphate fertilizer complexes often have sulfuric and phosphoric acid production facilities.

Sulfuric acid is produced by burning molten sulfur in air to produce sulfur dioxide, which is then catalytically converted to sulfur trioxide for absorption in oleum. Sulfur dioxide can also be produced by roasting pyrite ore. Phosphoric acid is manufactured by adding sulfuric acid to phosphate rock. The reaction mixture is filtered to re-move phosphogypsum, which is discharged to settling ponds or waste heaps.

Phosphate Rock Processing

The separation of phosphate rock from impurities and nonphosphate materials for use in fertilizer manufacture consists of beneficiation, drying or calcining at some operations, and grinding. Because the primary use of phosphate rock is in the manufacture of phosphatic fertilizer, only those phosphate rock processing operations associated with fertilizer manufacture are discussed here. Phosphate rock from the mines is first sent to beneficiation units to separate sand and clay and to remove impurities. Steps used in beneficiation depend on the type of rock. A typical beneficiation unit for separating phosphate rock mined in Florida begins with wet screening to separate pebble rock that is larger than 1.43 millimeters (mm) (0.056 inch [in.]) or 14 mesh, and smaller than 6.35 mm (0.25 in.) from the balance of the rock. The pebble rock is shipped as pebble product. The material that is larger than 0.85 mm (0.033 in.), or 20 mesh, and smaller than 14 mesh is separated using hydrocyclones and finer mesh screens and is added to the pebble product. The fraction smaller than 20 mesh is treated by 2-stage flotation. The flotation process uses hydrophilic or hydrophobic chemical reagents with aeration to separate suspended particles.

Phosphate rock mined in North Carolina does not contain pebble rock. In processing this type of phosphate, 10-mesh screens are used. Like Florida rock, the fraction that is less than 10 mesh is treated by 2-stage flotation, and the fraction larger than 10 mesh is used for secondary road building.

The 2 major western phosphate rock ore deposits are located in southeastern Idaho and northeastern Utah, and the beneficiation processes used on materials from these deposits differ greatly. In general, southeastern Idaho deposits require crushing, grinding, and classification. Further processing may include filtration and/or drying, depending on the phosphoric acid plant requirements. Primary size reduction generally is accomplished by crushers (impact) and grinding mills. Some classification of the primary crushed rock may be necessary before secondary grinding (rod milling)takes place. The ground material then passes through hydrocyclones that are oriented in a 3-stage countercurrent arrangement. Further processing in the form of chemical flotation may be required.Most of the processes are wet to facilitate material transport and to reduce dust.

Northeastern Utah deposits are a lower grade and harder than the southeastern Idaho deposits and require processing similar to that of the Florida deposits. Extensive crushing and grinding is necessary to liberate phosphate from the material. The primary product is classified with 150- to 200-mesh screens, and the finer material is disposed of with the tailings. The coarser fraction is processed through multiple steps of phosphate flotation and then diluent flotation. Further processing may include filtration and/or drying, depending on the phosphoric acid plant requirements. As is the case for southeastern Idaho deposits, most of the processes are wet to facilitate material transport and to reduce dust.

The wet beneficiated phosphate rock may be dried or calcined, depending on its organic content. Florida rock is relatively free of organics and is for the most part no longer dried or calcined. The rock is maintained at about 10 percent moisture and is stored in piles at the mine and/or chemical plant for future use. The rock is slurried in water and wet-ground in ball mills or rod mills at the chemical plant. Consequently, there is no significant emission potential from wet grinding. The small amount of rock that is dried in Florida is dried in direct-fired dryers at about 120°C (250°F), where the moisture content of the rock falls from 10 to 15 percent to 1 to 3 percent. Both rotary and fluidized bed dryers are used, but rotary dryers are more common. Most dryers are fired with natural gas or fuel oil (No. 2 or No. 6), with many equipped to burn more than 1 type of fuel. Unlike Florida rock, phosphate rock mined from other reserves contains organics and must be heated to 760 to 870°C (1400 to 1600°F) to remove them. Fluidized-bed calciners are most commonly used for this purpose, but rotary calciners are also used. After drying, the rock is usually conveyed to storage silos on weather-protected conveyors and, from there, to grinding mills. In North Carolina, a portion of the beneficiated rock is calcined at temperatures generally between 800 and 825°C (1480 and 1520°F) for use in "green" phosphoric acid production, which is used for producing super phosphoric acid and as a raw material for purified phosphoric acid manufacturing. To produce "amber" phosphoric acid, the calcining step is omitted, and the beneficiated rock is transferred directly to the phosphoric acid production processes. Phosphate rock that is to be used for the production of granular triple super phosphate (GTSP) is beneficiated, dried, and ground before being transferred to the GTSP production processes.

Dried or calcined rock is ground in roll or ball mills to a fine powder, typically specified as 60 percent by weight passing a 200-mesh sieve. Rock is fed into the mill by a rotary valve, and ground rock is swept from the mill by a circulating air stream. Product size classification is provided by a "revolving whizzer, which is mounted on top of the ball mill," and by an air classifier. Oversize particles are recycled to the mill, and product size particles are separated from the carrying air stream by a cyclone.

Description of Urea Production Processes

The commercial synthesis of urea involves the combination of ammonia and carbon dioxide at high pressure to form ammonium carbamate which is subsequently dehydrated by the application of heat to form urea and water.

2NH3 Ammonia + CO2 Carbon Dioxide is in equilibrium with NH2COONH4AmmoniumCarbamate in equilibrium with CO(NH2)2 Urea+ H2OWater Reaction 1 is fast and exothermic and essentially goes to completion under the reaction conditions used industrially. Reaction 2 is slower and endothermic and does not go to completion. The conversion (on a CO2 basis) is usually in the order of 50-80%. The conversion increases with increasing temperature and NH3/CO2 ratio and decreases with increasing H2O/CO2 ratio.

The design of commercial processes has involved consideration of how to separate the urea from the other constituents, how to recover excess NH3, and decompose the carbamate for recycle. Attention was also devoted to developing materials to withstand the corrosive carbamate solution and to optimise the heat and energy balances.

The simplest way to decompose the carbamate to CO2 and NH3 requires the reactor effluentto be de pressurised and heated. The earliest urea plants operated on a "Once Through" principle where the off-gases were used as feedstocks for other products. Subsequently "Partial Recycle" techniques were developed to recover and recycle some of the NH3 and CO2 to the process. It was essential to recover all of the gases for recycle to the synthesis to optimise raw material utilisation and since re compression was too expensive an alternative method was developed. This involved cooling the gases and re-combining them to form carbamate liquor which was pumped back to the synthesis. A series of loops involving carbamate decomposers at progressively lower pressures and carbamate condensers were used. This was known as the "Total Recycle Process". A basic consequence of recycling the gases was that the NH3/CO2 molar ratio in the reactor increased thereby increasing the urea yield.

Significant improvements were subsequently achieved by decomposing the carbamate in the reactor effluent without reducing the system pressure. This "Stripping Process" dominated synthesis technology and provided capital/energy savings. Two commercial stripping systems were developed, one using CO2 and the other using NH3 as the stripping gases.
Since the base patents on stripping technology have expired, other processes have emerged which combine the best features of Total Recycle and Stripping Technologies. For convenience total recycle processes were identified as either "conventional" or "stripping" processes.

The urea solution arising from the synthesis/recycle stages of the process is subsequently concentrated to a urea melt for conversion to a solid prilled or granular product. Improvements in process technology have concentrated on reducing production costs and minimising the environmental impact. These included boosting CO2 conversion efficiency, increasing heat recovery, reducing utilities consumption and recovering residual NH3 and urea from plant effluents. Simultaneously the size limitation of prills and concern about the prill tower off-gas effluent were responsible for increased interest in melt granulation processes and prill tower emission abatement. Some or all of these improvements have been used in updating existing plants and some plants have added computerised systems for process control. New urea installations vary in size from 800 to 2000t/d and typically would be 1500t/d units.

Modern processes have very similar energy requirements and nearly 100% material efficiency. There are some differences in the detail of the energy balances but they are deemed to be minor in effect.

Block flow diagrams for CO2 and NH3 stripping total recycle processes are shown in Figures 1 and 2.

Figure 1 - Block diagram of a total recycle CO2 stripping urea process.

Figure 2 - Block diagram of a total recycle NH3 stripping urea process

Production Of Urea Plant

The total capacity of these plants is around 19,000t/d.

Description of BAT Production Processes

The process water from each process discussed in this section is purified by recovery of dissolved urea, NH3 and CO2 which are recycled to the synthesis section via a low pressure carbamate condensation system.

Carbon dioxide stripping process

NH3 and CO2 are converted to urea via ammonium carbamate at a pressure of approximately 140bar and a temperature of 180-185oC. The molar NH3/CO2 ratio applied in the reactor is 2.95. This results in a CO2 conversion of about 60% and an NH3 conversion of 41%. The reactor effluent, containing unconverted NH3 and CO2 is subjected to a stripping operation at essentially reactor pressure, using CO2 as stripping agent. The stripped-off NH3 and CO2 are then partially condensed and recycled to the reactor. The heat evolving from this condensation is utilised to produce 4.5bar steam some of which can be used for heating purposes in the downstream sections of the plant. Surplus 4.5bar steam is sent to the turbine of the CO2 compressor.

The NH3 and CO2 in the stripper effluentare vaporised in a 4bar decomposition stage and subsequently condensed to form a carbamate solution, which is recycled to the 140bar synthesis section. Further concentration of the urea solution leaving the 4bar decomposition stage takes place in the evaporation section, where a 99.7% urea melt is produced.

Ammonia stripping process

NH3 and CO2 are converted to urea via ammonium carbamate at a pressure of 150bar and a temperature of 180oC. A molar ratio of 3.5 is used in the reactor giving a CO2 conversion of 65%. The reactor effluententers the stripper where a large part of the unconverted carbamate is decomposed by the stripping action of the excess NH3. Residual carbamate and CO2 are recovered downstream of the stripper in two successive stages operating at 17 and 3.5bar respectively. NH3 and CO2 vapours from the stripper top are mixed with the recovered carbamate solution from the High Pressure (HP)/Low Pressure (LP) sections, condensed in the HP carbamate condenser and fed to the reactor. The heat of condensation is used to produce LP steam.

The urea solution leaving the LP decomposition stage is concentrated in the evaporation section to a urea melt.

Advanced cost & energy saving (ACES) process

In this process the synthesis section operates at 175bar with an NH3/CO2 molar ratio of 4 and a temperature of 185 to 190oC.

The reactor effluentis stripped at essentially reactor pressure using CO2 as stripping agent. The overhead gas mixture from the stripper is fed to two carbamate condensers in parallel where the gases are condensed and recycled under gravity to the reactor along with absorbent solutions from the HP scrubber and absorber. The heat generated in the first carbamate condenser is used to generate 5bar steam and the heat formed in the second condenser is used to heat the solution leaving the stripper bottom after pressure reduction. The inerts in the synthesis section are purged to the scrubber from the reactor top for recovery and recycle of NH3 and CO2. The urea solution leaving the bottom of the stripper is further purified in HP and LP decomposers operating at approx. 17.5bar and 2.5bar respectively. The separated NH3 and CO2 are recovered to the synthesis via HP and LP absorbers.

The aqueous urea solution is first concentrated to 88.7%wt in a vacuum concentrator and then to the required concentration for prilling or granulating.

Isobaric double recycle (IDR) process

In this process reactor pressure is about 200bar, the molar NH3/CO2 ratio is 4.5 and the reactor effluent temperature 185 to 190oC. The conversion rates to urea in the reactor are 71% for CO2 and 35% for NH3.

Unconverted materials in the effluentfrom the reactor bottom are separated by heating and stripping in two consecutive decomposers operated at reactor pressure and heated by 25bar steam. Carbamate is decomposed/stripped by NH3 in the first stripper and the remaining NH3 is evolved in the second stripper using CO2 as stripping agent. The overheads from stripper 1 are fed directly to the reactor and the overheads from stripper 2 are recycled to the reactor via the carbamate condenser. Heat of condensation is recovered as 6bar steam and used downstream in the process.

Most of the CO2 fed to the plant goes to the second stripper and the remainder goes directly to the reactor for fine temperature control when needed. About 40% of the NH3 goes to the first stripper and the remainder to the upper and lower sections of the reactor in two streams.

Unconverted carbamate, NH3 and CO2 leaving the stripper with the urea solution are recovered/vaporised in two successive distillers operating at 20bar and 6bar respectively. The vapours are condensed and recycled to the synthesis after condensation to carbamate solution.

The latent heat present in the 20bar stage off-gases is used as a heat source for the evaporation of water in the first stage evaporator.

Further concentration of the urea solution leaving the LP decomposition stage is carried out in two vacuum evaporators in series, producing urea melt for prilling or granulating.

Process Water Sources and Quantities

A 1,000t/d urea plant generates on average approximately 500m3/d process water containing 6% NH3, 4% CO2 and 1.0% urea (by weight). The principal source of this water is the synthesis reaction where 0.3tonnes of water is formed per tonne of urea e.g.
2NH3 + CO2 -----> CO(NH2)2 + H2O

The other sources of water are ejector steam, flush and seal water and steam used in the waste water treatment plant.
The principal sources of urea, NH3 and CO2 in the process water are:
Evaporator condensate.

The NH3 and urea in the evaporator condensate are attributable to

a. the presence of NH3 in the urea solution feed to the evaporator,
b. the formation of biuret and the hydrolysis of urea in the evaporators, both reactions liberating NH3

2CO(NH2)2 -----> H2NCONHCONH2 + NH3
CO(NH2)2 + H2O -----> 2NH3 + CO2

c. direct carry over of urea from the evaporator separators to the condensers (physical entrainment),
d. the formation of NH3 from the decomposition of urea to isocyanic acid.

CO(NH2)2 -----> HNCO + NH3

The reverse reaction occurs on cooling the products in the condensers.
Off-gases from the recovery/recirculation stage absorbed in the process water.
Off-gases from the synthesis section absorbed in the process water.
Flush and purge water from pumps.
Liquid drains from the recovery section.

The purpose of the water treatment is to remove NH3, CO2 and urea from the process water and recycle the gases to the synthesis. This ensures raw material utilisation is optimised and effluentis minimised.

Prilling and Granulation

In urea fertilizer production operations, the final product is in either prilled or granular form. Production of either from urea melt requires the use of a large volume of cooling air which is subsequently discharged to the atmosphere. A block diagram of the prilling and granulation processes is shown in Figure 3.

Prilling

The concentrated (99.7%) urea melt is fed to the prilling device (e.g. rotating bucket/shower type spray head) located at the top of the prilling tower. Liquid droplets are formed which solidify and cool on free fall through the tower against a forced or natural up-draft of ambient air. The product is removed from the tower base to a conveyor belt using a rotating rake, a fluidised bed or a conical hopper. Cooling to ambient temperature and screening may be used before the product is finally transferred to storage.
The design/operation of the prilling device exerts a majorinfluenced on product size. Collision of the molten droplets with the tower wall as well as inter-droplet contact causing agglomeration must be prevented. Normally mean prill diameters range from 1.6-2.0mm for prilling operations. Conditioning of the urea melt and "crystal seeding" of the melt, may be used to enhance the anti-caking and mechanical properties of the prilled product during storage/handling.

Granulation

Depending on the process a 95-99.7% urea feedstock is used. The lower feedstock concentration allows the second step of the evaporation process to be omitted and also simplifies the process condensate treatment step. The basic principle of the process involves the spraying of the melt onto recycled seed particles or prills circulating in the granulator. A slow increase in granule size and drying of the product takes place simultaneously. Air passing through the granulator solidifies the melt deposited on the seed material.

Processes using low concentration feedstock require less cooling air since the evaporation of the additional water dissipates part of the heat which is released when the urea crystallises from liquid to solid.

All the commercial processes available are characterised by product recycle, and the ratio of recycled to final product varies between 0.5 and 1.0. Prill granulation or fattening systems have a very small recycle, typically 2 to 4%. Usually the product leaving the granulator is cooled and screened prior to transfer to storage. Conditioning of the urea melt prior to spraying may also be used to enhance the storage/handling characteristics of the granular product.

Feasible and Available Emission Abatement Techniques

Gaseous emissions

Scrubbing of off-gases with process condensate prior to venting inerts to atmosphere.

Wet scrubbing of prill tower and granulation plant air to recover urea and NH3.

Connection of ammonia pump safety relief valves/seals to a flare; connection of tank vents to the plant main stack or other safe location.

Dust reduction by producing granular rather than prilled product.

Bag filtration of dust laden air from transfer points, screens, bagging machines, etc. coupled with a dissolving system for recycle to the process.

Flash melting of solid urea over-size product for recycle to the process.

Collection of solid urea spillages on a dry basis.

Liquid emissions

Treatment of process waste water/condensate for recovery of urea, NH3 and CO2.

Improved evaporation heater/separator design to minimise urea entrainment.

Provision of adequate storage capacity for plant inventory to cater for plant upset and shut-down conditions.

Provision of submerged tanks to collect plant washings, etc. from drains for recycle to the waste water treatment section.

Use of mechanical seals instead of gland packing for pumps.

Use of closed circuit gland cooling water system for reciprocating pumps.

Replacement of reciprocating machinery with centrifugal type.

General

Computerisation of process control to provide consistent optimum operating conditions.

Implementation of regular scheduled maintenance programmes and good housekeeping practices.

Description of Process Water BAT Treatment Systems

A block diagram for a waste-water treatment plant is shown in Figure 4.

Desorption hydrolysis system

Heated process water is fed to the top of Desorber 1 where it is stripped of NH3 and CO2 by gas streams from Desorber 2 and the hydrolyser. The liquid leaving Desorber 1 bottom is pre-heated to 190°C and fed at 17bar pressure to the top of the hydrolyser. 25bar steam is introduced to the bottom of the hydrolyser and under these conditions the urea is decomposed and the gases are counter currently stripped. The vapours go to Desorber 1. The urea free liquid stream leaving the desorber is used to heat the hydrolyser feed stream and is fed after expansion to Desorber 2 where LP steam counter currently strips the remaining NH3 and CO2 and the off-gases pass to Desorber 1. Figure 4 - Block diagram for waste water treatment plant

The off-gases from Desorber 1 are condensed in a cooled reflux condenser/separator. Part of the separated liquid is pumped back to Desorber 1 and the remainder is returned to the LP recirculation section of the urea plant. Residual NH3 in the separator off-gas is recovered in an atmospheric absorber and returned to the LP recirculation section also.

The treated water which leaves Desorber 2 is cooled and concentrations of 5mg/l free NH3 and 1mg/l urea can be attained.

Distillation-hydrolysis system

Heated process water is fed to the top section of a distillation tower for NH3 and CO2 removal. The effluent liquid is pre-heated before entry to the hydrolyser where the urea is decomposed to NH3 and CO2. The hydrolyser and distillation tower vapours are mixed with off gases from the LP decomposer separator, cooled and recycled to the process. After effluent treatment, water suitable for boiler feed is stated to be achievable. Treated water containing 5mg/l free NH3 and 1mg/l urea is expected.

Stripping-hydrolysis system

Heated process water containing NH3, CO2 and urea is fed to the top of a steam stripper operated at 3 bar for separation of NH3 and CO2. The water is then fed from the middle section to the hydrolyser operating at 16 bar. The gaseous overheads are then sent via the LP decomposer/absorber to the synthesis for recovery of NH3 and CO2.

Free NH3 and urea concentrations of 3-5mg/l for each component are expected in the treated water.

Existing emissions to water performance

The actual performance of some existing plants may vary considerably from the above with values for emissions to water of 20-230mg/l (0.01-0.61kg/t of product) of NH3 and 20-320mg/l (0.01-0.84kg/t) of urea depending on the treatment system used. Figure 5 shows the emission sources from an existing plant.

Figure 5 - Block diagram of emission sources and typical quantities for existing plants.

Prill Tower Emissions

The prill tower is a major source of emission in urea plants. The large volumes of
discharged untreated cooling air contain particulate urea dust (1-2kg/t) as well as NH3 (0.7-1.0kg/t).

Causes of dust formation

Towers with natural draft cooling are reported to have less dust emission than towers with forced/induced draft air cooling. The lower air velocity and product mass per m 3 of tower volume reduces attrition and carryover in the natural draft towers.

Operation and maintenance items significantly affecting dust formation

Fouling of the prilling device causing wider spread in prill granulometry
.
High melt feed temperature causing increased evaporation.

High prill temperature at the tower base. The largest prills may not have solidified sufficiently and will fracture on impact.

Dust emission is approximately proportional to prilling tower capacity.

High air velocities and the air velocity distribution cause coarse dust to be entrained.

Weather conditions e.g. relative humidity, temperature can affect the air quality/quantity.

Unequal pressure in the prilling device causing a broad spread of prill size.

Prill tower emission abatement

Selection of the appropriate equipment for existing plants can be a complex issue. Dry dust collectors, irrigated electrostatic precipitators and irrigated dust scrubbers have been considered for dust abatement but few have been commercially proven. Wet scrubbers seem to be more attractive than dry dust collectors. Recovery of the NH3 from the emission (for example by aqueous scrubbing) is very inefficient due to the low partial pressure of the gas in the discharged air.

Existing prilling plant performance

Figure 5 shows the emission sources from an existing plant


Granulator Emissions

A dust emission of 5-40kg/t of final product is suggested for granulation process operations (i e ex granulator and cooler), which is is considerably higher than for prilling.

Causes of dust formation

The following reflects some speculations about the causes of dust formation in granulation but no quantitative data is available.

-Urea vapour formation during hot spraying of the urea melt and its subsequent condensation/solidification into small (0.5-3.0mm) particles. The vaporisation becomes negligible when the melt concentration is reduced to 95%.
-Reaction product of NH3 with isocyanic acid to form Urea.
-Entrainment of fine dust in the air.
-Impact of granules with the metal surface of the drum.
-solidification of sprayed molten urea droplets prior to coating due to excessive air flow.
-High vapour pressure of sprayed molten urea.
-High or low temperature, producing soft or brittle granules.
-Inter-granular friction causing surface abrasion.

Granulator emission abatement

Air extracted from the plant is normally scrubbed with urea plant process condensate and the resultant urea solution is recycled for reprocessing. With standard wet scrubbers an efficiency of 98% can be achieved for dust removal. The low partial pressure of the NH3 in the discharged air results in low NH3 scrubbing/recovery efficiencies which can be increased by acidification but the resultant solution has to be used in other plants.

Existing granulation plant performance Figure 5 shows the emission sources from an existing plant.

Production Of Urea-Ammonium Nitrate (UAN)

Overview of UAN Process Technology

Ammonium nitrate (AN) and urea are used as feedstocks in the production of urea-ammonium nitrate (UAN) liquid fertilizers. Most UAN solutions typically contain 28, 30 or 32% N but other customised concentrations (including additional nutrients) are produced. Plant capacities for the production of UAN solutions range between 200 and 2000t/d. Most of the large scale production units are located on complexes where either urea or ammonium nitrate or both are produced.

The addition of corrosion inhibitors or the use of corrosion resistent coatings allows carbon steel to be used for storage and transportation equipment for the solutions. West European consumption of UAN in 1990 was 2.6 x 106t of solution, one third of which was imported.

Typical UAN solution analysis

N content 28-32% by weight, pH 7 to 7.5, density 1280-1320kg/m3, salt-out temperature –18 to –2°C, depending on the N content and at its lowest when the Urea N/Ammonium Nitrate N ratio is about 1:1.

Description of Production Processes

Continuous and batch type processes are used and in both processes concentrated urea and ammonium nitrate solutions are measured, mixed and then cooled. Block diagrams for UAN production are shown in Figures 6 and 7.

Figure 6 – Block flow diagram for UAN process.

Figure 7 – Block diagram of a partial recycle CO2 stripping urea process for UAN production.

In the continuous process the ingredients of the UAN solution are continuously fed to and mixed in a series of appropriately sized static mixers. Raw material flow as well as finished product flow, pH and density are continuously measured and adjusted. The finished product is cooled and transferred to a storage tank for distribution.

In the batch process the raw materials are sequentially fed to a mixing vessel fitted with an agitator and mounted on load-cells. The dissolving of the solid raw material(s) can be enhanced by recirculation and heat exchange as required. The pH of the UAN product is adjusted prior to the addition of the corrosion inhibitor.

A partial recycle CO2 stripping urea process is also suitable for UAN solution production. Unconverted NH3 and CO2 coming from the stripped urea solution, together with the gases from the water treatment unit, are transferred for conversion into UAN solutions.

Description of Storage and Transfer Equipment

The physical form of the feedstock dictates the handling and storage system requirements. Bunded tank areas and collection pits allow any solution spillages to be collected for recycle. Air ducting and filtration helps the recovery of air-borne dust.

Regulations specific to the storage and handling of solid or solutions of ammonium nitrate must be adhered to. Recommendations for the storage and transfer of ammonia and nitric acid are given in EFMA BAT Booklets Nos 1 and 2 respectively. Recommendations for the storage of solid ammonium nitrate can be found in Reference [1].

Environmental Data

Raw material and utility inputs

Typical raw materials/utilities consumption

Urea -327.7kg/t (30% UAN solution)
Ammonium Nitrate- 425.7kg/t
Corrosion Inhibitor -1.4kg/t
Ammonia- 0.3kg/t
Water-244.9kg/t
Steam and electricity may approximate to 10-11KWh/t respectively but are a function of raw material type (solid or solution) and ambient temperature.

Emissions and wastes

No gaseous emissions or waste arise during the non-pressure mixing of the aqueous based components.Emissions to drain are nil provided solid spillages, washings and leaks are collected in a pit or sump and recycled to the process.

Emission Monitoring

Emissions do not arise if BAT is employed. Continuous monitoring of process conditions (e.g. flow, pH, density, temperature and level) ensures optimum control and no emissions. Specific national or local requirements for monitoring may exist.

Major Hazards

The manufacture, use, storage, distribution and possession of ammonium nitrate (solid) are subject to legislation. Recommendations for its handling and storage have been issued [1]. The plant inventory of chemicals for pH adjustment (ammonia/nitric acid) will generally be too small to cause a major hazard.

Occupational Health & Safety

The materials for consideration include urea and ammonium nitrate (solids and aqueous solutions), pH adjustment chemicals (ammonia and nitric acid) and corrosion inhibitors. Full details and data for urea are given in Section 7 of this Booklet. Information covering ammonia, nitric acid and ammonium nitrate can be found in EFMA BAT Booklets Nos 1, 2 and 6 respectively.

Summary of BAT Emission Levels for UAN Solution Technologies

Zero gaseous and liquid emissions are achievable for new as well as for existing UAN solution technologies.

Reference:
Web Site: http://www.efma.org/Publications/BAT%2095/Bat05/section04.asp

زندگی به حقيقت ظلمت است، مگر شوق و شور در ميان باشد. و شوق و شور کور و بی هدف است مگر دانش در ميان باشد. و دانش پوچ و بی حاصل است مگر کار در ميان باشد. و کار تهی و بی جان است مگر عشق در ميان باشد. وهنگامی که با عشق کار می کنی خود را با خود و با مردم و با خدا پيوند می دهی. کار تجسم عشق است. اگر نمی توانی با عشق کار کنی، اگر جز با ملامت و بيزاری کاری از تو برنمی آيد، بهتر است کار خود را ترک کنی و بر دروازه معبد بنشينی و صدقات کسانی را که با عشق کار می کنند بپذيری. زيرا اگر بی عشق پخت کنی نانی تلخ از تنور به در خواهد آمد که گرسنه را نيم سير گذارد...

Using simple adiabatic expansion, the ratio of the constant pressure to constant volume heat capacities of gases will be measured. This property will be correlated to the internal motion and molecular structure of the gases studied. Several gases will be compared and the contributions of the the different types internal molecular motions to the total thermal energy of the gas molecules will be gleaned.

Theory

For a perfect (ideal) gas, C_p = C_V + R , where C_p and C_V are the molar heat capacities at constant pressure and volume, respectively (see on-line lecture notes for a derivation of this and related formulae). For an arbitrary real gas a slightly more complicated relationship between these heat capacities may be derived from the equation of state. Essentially, however, the difference between heating a gas at constant volume and constant pressure is expansion work. Thus, the ratio C_p / C_V is related to the capacity of the system to do work upon expansion. This ratio is usually given the symbol [lower case greek gamma].

Properties of C_V
The heat capacity of a molecule is clearly related to the way that the molecule can accomidate energy at a given temperature. The energy of the molecule is partitioned among the types of motion the molecule can exhibit. It is important in thermodynamics to count and categorize such molecular motion in a systematic way. The number of degrees of freedom (DOF) for a given molecule is the number of independent coordinates needed to specify all its nuclear positions (what do I ignore in this statement?). A molecule of n atoms therefore has 3n DOF. These could be assigned to the coordinates of the individual n atoms, or alternatively they can be classified as follows:

• Translational degrees of freedom: 3 independent coordinates specify the center of mass of the molecule.

• Rotational degrees of freedom: All molecules containing more than a single atom require specification of their orientation in space. Rotation of a diatomic molecule can be described by two rotational degrees of freedom since rotation about the internuclear axis leaves the molecule unchanged. Non-linear molecules require three rotational degrees of freedom.

• Vibrational degrees of freedom: The displacements of the atoms from their equilibrium positions can be described by 3n-5 DOF for linear molecules and 3n-6 for non-linear molecules. These values are determined by the fact that the total number of DOF must be 3n. For each vibrational DOF there is an associated normal mode of vibration of the molecule with characteristic symmetry properties and a characteristic harmonic frequency.

From these considerations it is clear that for a monotonic gas (like He) no vibrational or rotational energy terms exist, but, like all gaseous molecules, energy may be contained in translational motion. Thus the molar energy of a monoatomic gas is simply 3RT/2. The constant volume heat capacity of a monotonic gas is therefore

eq.1

For diatomic or polyatomic molecules,

eq.2

Contributions from electronic states to the total internal energy have been neglected under the assumption that at room temperature electronic transitions out of the ground state are unlikely. On the other hand, the population of excited vibrational states depends strongly on temperature and thus the various vibrational modes can be at least partially active. In general, if a vibration involves a heavy atom or possesses a smaller force constant, then the normal mode will be more active and make a greater individual contribution to the heat capacity. For example, the frequencies of bending modes tend to be much lower than those of stretching modes. Since in the case of most diatomics there are only stretching modes, the vibrational contribution to C_V will be very small. Indeed, N₂ would have its equipartition value for C_V only above about 4000 K. In contrast many polyatomic molecules, especially those containing heavy atoms,will at room temperature have significant partial vibrational contributions to the heat capacity.

At ordinary temperatures many of the excited state rotational levels are thermally accessible and hence the rotational contribution is in accord with the equipartition theorem of classical mechanics.

Thus, it is possible to calculate definite values for C_V and hence, through the ideal gas equation of state, the ratio for ideal monatomic and polyatomic gases using the above expressions. Statistical thermodynamics provides even better results, for which the partially 'frozen' vibrational contribution to the heat capacity may be evaluated exactly (you guessed it, I have some lecture notes on this, too).

Thermodynamics

A two step process can be used to experimentally determine the ratio of the heat capacities. These are:

I. An adiabatic reversible (isentropic) expansion from the initial pressure p₁, to the intermediate pressure, p₂

eq.3

II. Restoration of the temperature to its initial value T₁, at constant volume.

eq.4

Recall that for any adiabatic process,

eq.5

The First Law states:

eq.6

So for the first step of the experiment

eq.7

At constant volume the heat capacity relates the change in temperature to the change in internal energy,

eq.8

Equating our two expressions for dU,

eq.9

Inserting the ideal gas law and integrating each side,

eq.10

Equation (9) predicts the decrease in temperature accompanying the reversible adiabatic expansion of a perfect gas. This expression can be cast in terms of the initial and final pressures and the ratio of the heat capacities by noting that for an ideal gas,

eq.11

yielding,

eq.12

or after rearranging and using C_p = C_V + R

eq.13

For step II, the temperature is restored to T₁, and

eq.14

Thus,

eq.15

and after a final rearrangement, we have the desired expression for the ratio of the molar heat capacities:

eq.16

This simple and classical method is a slightly modified version of that attributed to due to Clement and Desormes [ref to be found] that has even older origins [1] and uses the apparatus shown in the schematic below. A gas is initially contained in the sample vessel at a pressure (p₁) slightly higher than atmospheric pressure (p₂). The adiabatic reversible expansion (step I) is carried out by quickly removing and replacing the stopper in the top of the sample container. Step II occurs by simply waiting for the gas remaining in the carboy to return to its initial temperature (T₁) and final pressure (p₃) by heat transfer from the surroundings. The initial pressure p₁, and the final pressure p₃ are read using a capacitance manometer pressure gauge.

The thermodynamic expressions used to derive the heat capacity ratio apply only to the part of the gas that remains in the carboy after the stopper is replaced since molar volumes and molar heat capacities were used. Physically, the reversibility of the expansion can be justifed as follows: One can imagine an invisible surface separating the gas that remains within the carboy and the gas that escapes when the stopper is removed. The gas below this surface expands in an approximately reversible way against the surface. Work is done as the upper gas is pushed out. The change is approximately adiabatic only because it is rapid copared to heat flow but slow on the scale of the mechanical work. No appreciable amount of heat is transferred between the reservoir and the gas in the carboy during the short period of the expansion, but after the stopper is replaced, the temperature is seen to increase as thermal equilibrium is reestablished for the gas remaining in the vessel.
Experimental

The lab is equipped with several apparati as shown above, each filled with a different sample gas. Student teams shall rotate through the stations so that each team may obtain data on all the sample gases. For each gas, the following procedure is suggested:

• Read the capaciatnce manometer on the sample vessel at atmospheric pressure (stopper open) and compare with the Hg manometer on the lab wall. This data will be used to correct for drift of the 'zero' of the electronic pressure gauge.
• Carefully pressurize the vessel to about 800 torr. Allow for thermal equilibrium to be obtained by the gas in the vessel. A Thermocouple temperature gauge is provided to assist you in determining the temperature in the vessel. Read p₁
• Remove the stopper completely from the carboy (move about 5 cm from the opening), and replace it as quickly as possible. Make sure the stopper is replaced so that a gas tight seal is made. Follw the pressure and temperature rise that follows the expansion and record p₃.
• Repeat the above steps in order to obtain a good statistical determination of for each gas.

The choice of sample gases varies with availability but usually includes He, Ar, CO₂, N₂, butane, etc.

• Correct all capacitance manometer pressure readings for zero error using the Hg manometer data.
• Use eq. (16) to calculate for each run on each gas.
• Calculate an average for each gas, and provide statistical error limits.
• For each gas, calculate a theoretically and compare with that obtained by you experimentally.

Other useful references
D. Shoemaker, C. Garland, and J. Nibler, 'Experiments in Physical Chemistry", McGraw-Hill, New York
P. Atkins, "Physical Chemistry", 5th ed., W. H. Freeman, New York (1994)

Physical Properties of Industrial Gases and Common Industrial Chemicals

(English Units)

معرفي باغ شاهزاده، ماهان ـ كرمان

باغ شاهزاده ماهان كرمان يكي از نمونه باغ تخت‌هاي ايراني است كه از شرايط مساعد طبيعي ممتازترين بهره برداري را نموده است. باغ شاهزاده، ماهان در عصر قاجار در دوران يازده ساله فرمانفرمايسي عبدالحميد ميرزا ناصرالدوله (١٢٩٨ ه . ق تا ١٣٠٩ ه. ق) احداث گرديده است كه با مرگ وي ساخت باغ ناتمام ماند. محل استقرار اين باغ در نزديكي مقبره شاه نعمت الله ولي در دامنه ارتفاعات جوپار مي‌باشد.
وجود خاك حاصل خيز، آفتاب لازم، وزش باد ملايم و نسيم و بالاخره دسترسي به آب (قنات تيگران) امكان ايجاد باغي در آن مقياس را در گستره‌اي خشك و بي آب و علف معجزه گونه فراهم ساخته است.
باغ تخت شاهزاده در دامنه ارتفاعات جوپار به مساحت٥/٥ هكتار با شكلي مستطيلي يا شيبي حدود ٦/٤% شكل گرفته و حصاري بلند آن را از جو نامساعد اطراف جدا مي‌سازد.
آب منبع حيات بخش اين باغ از بخش فوقاني باغ داخل مي‌گردد. محورهاي اصلي و فرعي و تخت‌هاي مسطح در نظر ويژه‌اي آبياري شده و سبز انبوه و كم نظيري را در چارچوب طرح باغ بوجود آورده است.
نهر آبي كه وارد باغ مي‌گردد در جهت طولي باغ به گونه‌اي توزيع مي‌گردد كه علاوه بر آبياري كرت‌ها و مسيرها با استفاده از شيب تند زمين كه شرايط اوليه باغ تخت‌هاي مي‌باشد بر روي محور اصلي و مياني باغ به صورت نهري وسيع، آبشره‌ها و آبشارها به عنصر اصلي كيفيت بخش باغ بدل مي‌گردد.
در دو انتهاي محور اصلي، يعني در برابر اولين تخت كه بناي اصلي روي آن قرار دارد و ورودي باغ، برابر سر در خانه، دو استخر طراحي گرديده است كه سطح وسيع آب، صدا و جهش آب و فوراه‌هاي آنها به مطبوعيت باغ مي‌افزايد.
بناهاي باغ عبارتند از كوشك اصلي يعني سكونتگاه دائمي‌و يا فصل مالك كه در انتهاي فوقاني باغ قرار دارد. سر در خانه در مدخل باغ به صورت بنايي خطي جبهه ورودي باغ را اشغال كرده و در دو طبقه بنا گرديده است. طبقه فوقاني داراي اطاق هايي است كه براي زندگي و پذيرايي پيش بيني شده‌اند. ساير بناهاي خدماتي باغ از حصار اصلي استفاده نموده و به صورت ديواري مركب بناهاي مختلف خدماتي را در نقاط مناسب در خود جا داده است. ورودي هاي فرعي باغ نيز در دو ضلع طولي پيش بيني شده‌اند. طرح اندازي باغ شازده از چشم اندازهاي باغ كه از ويژگي هاي اصلي باغ تخت‌هاي مي‌باشد به بهترين وجه استفاده نموده است. ديدروهاي ممتد در جهت طولي باغ از كوشك اصلي به ساير قسمت‌هاي باغ و بالعكس از سردر خانه غناي خاص به زندگي در باغ مي‌دهد. مناظر بيروني باغ كه از داخل و يا از بيرون باغ قابل رويت مي‌باشند، در نمايش تضاد دو كيفيت زيست محيطي باغ و خارج باغ از نمونه‌هاي كم نظير و منحصر به فرد باغ شازده مي‌باشد.
نظم درختكاري، انتخاب مناسب گيانهان در ايجاد سايه و يا رنگ آميزي متناسب در فصل هاي مختلف باغ ارزش هاي استثنايي اي را براي آن تعريف مي‌كند.
باغ شازده ماهان در اوج والايي و شادابي كيفيت‌هاي طبيعي و مصنوع خود به خاطر دگرگوني شرايط سياسي و اجتماعي دوران براي مدت طولاني خارج از سكنه و متروك ماند و دچار آسيب هاي فراواني گرديد. خرابي هاي وارد شده كليه قسمت‌هاي باغ را در بر مي‌گيرد.
ويراني‌ها شامل ويراني بناهاي اصلي و همچنين محوطه باز باغ مي‌گردد. يعني باغ سازي و عناصر اصلي شكل دهنده باغ نيز (آبراه‌ها، استخرها، پياده راه‌ها و بالاخره طبيعت گياهي باغ نظير درختان، كرت‌ها، بسترهاي گل كاري) از اين گزند در امان نمي‌مانند.
باغ يك بار در سال ١٣٥٧ خورشيدي مرمت گرديد. در زلزله سال ١٣٦٠ آسيب هايي ديد كه مرمت شد.
اين باغ به دليل ويژگي ها و جذابيت‌هاي تاريخي و ارزش هاي فضايي كه دارد به عنوان يكي از نمونه باغ تخت‌هاي ايراني مورد توجه دوستداران باغ ايراني است. علاوه بر اين باغ به عنوان فضايي تفرجگاهي، پذيراي عدة زيادي است كه براي گذران اوقات فراغت از مناطق اطراف به آنجا رفته و ساعاتي را در آن مي‌گذرانند.
هدف از اين نوشتة آرايه بستر عمومي به منظور شناخت باغ‌هاي ايراني و به خصوص باغ شاهزاده ماهان و نظام هاي موجود در آن است

نظام استقرار
باغ شاهزاده ماهان با مختصات جغرافيايي٣٠ درجه و ٤ دقيقه عرض شمالي و ٥٧ درجه و ١٧ دقيقه طول شرقي مي‌باشد.
ارتفاع اين منطقه از سطح درياي آزاد ١٨٥٠ متر است. با توجه به اين كه باغ شاهزاده در دامنة كوه جوپار قرار گرفته است، از ارتفاع ٢٠٠٠ متر از سطح درياي آزاد برخوردار است.
باغ شاهزاده در فاصلة ٣٥ كيلومتري جنوب شرقي شهر كرمان و در فاصلة ٦ كيلومتري شهر ماهان در مسير جادة كرمان ـ بم در نزديكي ارتفاعات جوپار بنا گرديده است.
واقع شدن منطقه در مسير عبوري كرمان به بم و در مسير جاده كهن ابريشم از عواملي است كه اين محل را براي احداث يك باغ اشرافي مناسب مي‌ساخته است. باغ شاهزاده به گونه‌اي استقرار يافته كه حداكثر استفاده از مناظر بديع داخلي را به صورت زير امكان پذير مي‌سازد: در بدو ورود بويژه در طبقة فوقاني سردرخانه به غير از ديدها و مناظر بيروني باغ، منظره چهارباغ و در جهت عكس آن منظره كوه را امكان پذير مي‌سازد. اين مناظر عمده يعني رويت حركت آب، حوض ها و آبشارها هركدام به نوبه خود تأكيدي بر محورهاي عمود بر محور اصلي دارند و توام با نظام گياهي مناظر بديع داخلي را ارايه مي‌دهند.
باغ در بستر كوير در ميان ارتفاعات جوپار و بلوار شكل گرفته است. كوه‌هاي پر برف جوپار منظر زيبايي در محور اصلي باغ ارايه مي‌دهند كه ويژگي خاص اين منطقه مي‌باشد.

نظام فضايي
ـ رابطه باغ يا فضاي بيروني
وجود ارتفاعات بلند رشته كوه‌هاي جوپار به ويژه منظري بسيار جالب براي باغ در اين گستره فراهم آورده است. در اين بستر باز، باغ با ديوارهاي نسبتاً بلندي محصور گرديده و با انبوه ويژه‌اي از درختان همچون نگيني در كوير خودنمايي مي‌كند.
ورودي به باغ از اين گسترة باز و فضاي بكر كويري ـ از مسير يك چهار باغ است كه با درختان به ايجاد فضايي ممتد و جهت دار به سوي باغ هدايت مي‌گردد.

ـ سردر ورودي
سردر ورودي به صورت حجمي شفاف، ايجاد فضاي واحدي ميان اين پيش فضا، چهارباغ و داخل باغ مي‌نمايد. در داخل اين بنا ديد به فضاها در دو سوي محور اصلي باغ امكان پذير بوده و فضاي بيروني با درون باغ به صورت سيال و در يكديگر ادغام مي‌شوند.

فضاي داخل باغ
در بدو ورود به باغ كل فضاي باغ در راستاي محور اصلي و در ادامة آن و مناظر ارتفاعات جوپار رويت مي‌شود. اين چشم انداز طولاني با حجم بالا خانه در انتها بسته مي‌شود و با حضور درختان در دو جانب محور كه در مواقعي از سال رنگ هاي متفاوت دارند تقويت مي‌شود.
حضور جريان سراسري آب در محور اصلي باغ، آبشارها و صداي آن به تعريف اين محور كيفيت مطلوبي مي‌دهد. و انعكاس درختان و بناي سردرخانه و بالاخانه در دو استخر باغ ابعاد جديدي به فضا مي‌دهد. نور و سايه نيز به سهم خود در اين فضاسازي نقش مهمي را ايفا مي‌كنند.

نظام فضايي زمين
باغ به خاطر اختلاف سطح حدوداً ٢٠ متري در طول محور اصلي به طور مناسبي تقسيم‌بندي گرديده است. اين تقسيم بندي سطوح كه از شيب طبيعي ناشي مي‌شود ماهيت باغ تخت را تعريف مي‌كند.
نظام هندسي
شكل اصلي باغ شاهزاده مستطيلي با نسبت تقريبي چهار به يك مي‌باشد. طول كلي داخل باغ ٤٠٧ متر و عرض آن ١٢٢ متر مي‌باشد.
تقسيم بندي كلي باغ به صورت يك محور طولي و دو كانون (محوطه بناي اصلي باغ در قسمت بالا و محوطه ورودي در قسمت پايين) قابيل تشخيص است.
محورهاي فرعي به صورت افقي و عمود بر محور اصلي در مرز اختلاف سطح ها، كرت‌ها را كه شمار آنها در هر طرف هشت مي‌باشد بوجود آورده‌اند.
بناهاي باغ به سه دسته تقسيم شده‌اند. بناي اصلي در بالاترين تخت قرار دارد. بناي سردر خانه در بخش ورودي و ساير بناهاي خدماتي مماس به ديوار اصلي و خارج از آن واقع شده‌اند.
سطح بناي بالاخانه ٤٨٧ متر مربع و سطح سردر خانه ٢٣٤ متر مربع و فاصلة اين دو از يكديگر ٣٢٥ متر مي‌باشد.

نظام معماري
نظام معماري در رابطة تنگاتنگ با نظام فضايي و نظام هندسي باغ است. محدودة باغ با ديواري بلند و مركب محصور گرديده است . اين ديوار با بناهايي كه در داخل آن و يا با تصرف بخشي از وسعت بيروني باغ مشخص شده باغ را از محيط خارج جدا مي‌سازد.
زمين آرايي تخت باغ، و طبقه طبقه شدن آن از طريق سطوح كرت‌ها، سطح باغ را آينه وار در معرض ديد قرار مي‌دهد و بنابراين رابطة سادة بين نظاره گر و زمين مسطح به صورت غني تري در مي‌آيد و مشاركت نقش توپوگرافي زمين در فضاي باغ را تشديد مي‌كند. جريان آب به ويژه حوض ها علاوه بر تاكيد محورها و آب نماي سراسري به صورت آب شره‌ها سطوح شفافي را بروي زمين براي انعكاس ديگر عناصر ارايه داده است. درخت‌هاي سايه افكن ويژگي هاي معماري فضاي باغ را تاكيد و تشديد مي‌كنند.

سردر خانه از معماري شفافي برخوردار است كه امكان رويت چند جانبة باغ را ميسر مي‌سازد. از جمله، منظري كه از ارتفاع فوقاني به سمت بالاخانه و پايين كوه‌ها جوپار كه در فصول مناسب پوشيده از برف هستند رويت مي‌شود از يكسو، و منظر ديگري كه به سمت مقابل ورودي باغ در امتداد چهار باغ تا دور دست كوه‌هاي بلوار ادامه مي‌يابد.
بناي بالاخانه طويل ترين بناي منفرد باغ مي‌باشد كه عمود بر محور اصلي و در انتهاي آن قرار گرفته و بخش پاياني محور محسوب مي‌شود. با اين كه در پشت آن قسمتي از حياط واقع است اما از آنجا كه حياط مذكور اهميت حياط اصلي را ندارد اين حجم از بنا رابطة اصلي را با حياط پشت قطع مي‌كند.

آرايش محيط
كفسازي
سطوح كف در باغ عمدتاً از مخلوط قلوه سنگ با ملات تشكيل شده است اين تركيب در دو محدودة اطراف بالاخانه و سردرخانه توسط نقوش هندسي تزئين مي‌گردد. از آجر در پله‌ها و حاشية باغچه‌ها استفاده شده و سنگ در مرز ميان كرت‌ها با پياده راه‌ها و ديگر لبه بندي‌ها وجود دارد.

مصالح
مصالح بناهاي باغ عمدتاً آجر و اندود مي‌باشد كه در جاهايي مانند سردرخانه توسط كاشي نره مزين گرديده است. بناي بالاخانه كلاً اندود مي‌باشد. ديواره باغ اندود كاه گل است كه در نزديكي سردر خانه و بالاخانه به دليل خصوصيت فضايي محوطه‌هاي مذكور به تركيب آجر و اندود گچ تبديل مي‌گردد.
نظام كاربري ها
بازشناسي كاركردي
باغ شاهزاده ماهان در مقايسه با انواع باغ ها اعم از باغ ـ شكارگاه‌ها، بستان ها، باغ قلعه‌ها و باغ سكونتگاه‌ها در زمان ساخت خود (دورة قاجار) به عنوان فضايي سكونتگاهي و تفرجگاه شكل گرفت. با توجه به وجود دو محوطة وسيع در جلوي بالاخانه و سر در خانه كه با نرده‌هاي چوبي محصور شده‌اند نشان مي‌دهد كه باغ علاوه بر سكونتگاه محلي براي پذيرايي و تشريفات نيز پيش بيني شده بود.

نظام آبياري
منبع حياتي باغ شازده جريان آب هايي است كه از كوه‌هاي اطراف سرچشمه گرفته است. قنات تيگران كه از ارتفاعات كوه جوپار سرچشمه مي‌گيرد منبع آب اين باغ است. جريان فوق از مرتفع ترين سطح وارد باغ گرديده و نظام آبياري طراحي شده باغ را بوجود مي‌آورد.
نظام آبياري در باغ شازده كلاً تابع دو اصل مي‌باشد. يك آبياري گياهان باغ و دوم بهره برداري از موجوديت و كيفيت‌هايي كه آب مي‌تواند در باغ ايجاد نمايد.
بررسي وضع اوليه باغ كه در عكس‌ها مشاهده مي‌گردد نشان مي‌دهد كه حركت پلكاني آب در محور مياني تا بيرون از باغ نيز ادامه داشته است. اين فضا در حال حاضر با رواق هايي بازسازي و سنگ فرش شده است. دو استخر اصلي باغ در قسمت بالا و در قسمت ورودي داراي فواره‌هايي بوده‌اند كه آب را به ارتفاع قابل ملاحظه‌اي پرش مي‌دادند. اين راه حل كمتر در باغ هاي ايراني ديده شده است و يقيناً متاثر از شناخت باغ ها و چشمه‌هاي اروپايي است.

نظام گياهي
انتخاب و آرايش گياهان در باغ شاهزاده ماهان نقش تعيين كننده‌اي در هويت باغ دارا مي‌باشد.
درختان و نباتاتي كه در بستر منطقة باغ شاهزاده ماهان ديده مي‌شوند به ترتيب زير مي‌باشند.

ـ درختان هميشه سبز و باد شكن: درختان سوزني برگ مانند كاج ها، سروها
ـ درختان سايه دار: درختان برگ پهن مانند نارون وحشي و چتري، زبان گنجشك يا ون، چنار و سپيدار. اين درختان علاوه بر اين كه از نظر ايجاد سايه اهميت دارند در آب و هواي منطقه مقاومت مي‌كنند.
گياهان زينتي: از گياهان زينتي از قبيل سروهاي زينتي پيراكانتا و گونه‌هاي ارس زينتي و شير خشت كه در زمستان گل هاي ريز مي‌دهد.
درختان ميوه در كرته‌ها كاشته مي‌شوند و خصوصاً از ديدروهاي سمت بالاخانه به پايين در فصولي كه ميوه دارند منظر جالب و رنگارنگي را به وجود مي‌آورند.
درختان ديگر در باغ، بيد، ون، بم، شنگ و كاج مي‌باشند.